Introduction

These tragic events are now part of local history and lore, but they are rarely described from the perspective of the Native peoples who were the targets of these attacks. During 1997 and 1998, a comprehensive program of archaeological and ethnographic study was undertaken in the Crooks Canyon area. The archaeological excavations, directed at the settlements within and adjacent to Crooks Canyon, tell the story of Native lifeways that extend back thousands of years in this region. Many of the encamp-ments, however, date to a much more recent time, and were occupied slightly before and probably during the military engagements with the U.S. Army in the 1860s.

Among the Achumawi band of the Pit River Indians, who have tradi-tionally occupied this region, there are elders who remember the old ways and stories. Passed down as oral history, the Battle of Infernal Caverns remains vivid, and very different from the military histories and popular accounts that are found in many museums and libraries. There are other accounts, as well, that suggest that much of this region was engulfed in conflict and turmoil well before the arrival of the first white explorers and settlers. Coupled with the features, house structures, and artifacts docu-mented during the archaeological excavations at Crooks Canyon, a new and more complete picture of this turbulent period is emerging.

Crooks Canyon is located on a vast volcanic tableland known as the Modoc Plateau in Northeastern California.